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http://www.tooyoo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~tsunoda/dlg_lst.html Bibliography on Language Endangerment Version of 24 June 2002 This bibliography deals with topics or works such as the following: 1.general works on language endangerment; This bibliography does not contain descriptions or grammars of individual languages, apart from a small number of exceptions. Abbi, Anvita. 1995. Language contact and language restructuring: a case study of tribal languages in Central India. International Journal of the Sociology Adelaar, Willem F.H. 1991. The endangered languages problem: South America. In Robert H. Robins and Eugenius M. Uhlenbeck (eds.) Endangered Adelaar, Willem F.H. 1998. The endangered situation of native languages in South America. In Kazuto Matsumura (ed.), Studies in endangered Adelaar, Willem F.H. 2001. Descriptive linguistics and the standardization of newly described languages. In Osamu Sakiyama (ed.), Lectures on Adley-SantaMaria, Bernadette. 1997. White Mountain Apache language: issues in language shift, textbook development, and native speaker-university Aitchison, J. 1994. Pidgins, creoles, and changes. In R.E. Asher (Editor-in-Chief), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol.6:3181-86. Almasude, Amar. 1999. The new mass media and the shaping of Amazigh identity. In Jon Reyhner et al. (eds.), Revitalizing indigenous languages, Alpher, Barry. 1993. Out-of-the-ordinary ways of using a language. In Michael Walsh and Colin Yallop (eds.), Language and culture in Aboriginal Amery, Bob. 1994. Heritage and second language programs. In Deborah Hartman and John Henderson (eds.), Aboriginal languages in education, Amery, Rob. 2000. Warrabarna Kaurna!: reclaiming an Australian language. Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger. Andersen, Roger W. 1989. The "up" and "down" staircase in secondary language development. In Nancy C. Dorian (ed.), Investigating obsolescence[:] Anderson, Stephen R. 1977. On the mechanisms by which languages become ergative. In Charles N. Li (ed.), Mechanisms of syntactic change, 317-63. Anderson, T. 1971. Matanza. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Anderton, Alice. 1997. The Wordpath Show. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages, 222-227. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence Annamalai, E. 1998. Language survival in India: challenges and responses. In Kazuto Matsumura (ed.), Studies in endangered languages (ICHEL Anonby, Stan J. 1999. Reversing language shift: Can Kwak'wala be revived ? In Jon Reyhner et al. (eds.), Revitalizing indigenous languages, 33-52. [Anonymous] 1998. The Huaxyacac (Oaxaca) declaration on adult education for indigenous peoples. In Linda King (ed.) Reflecting visions[:] new [Anonymous. Gina Cantoni ?] 1996. College and universities summary. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous languages, 131-32. Flagstaff, [Anonymous. Gina Cantoni ?] 1996. Journal of Navajo Education. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous languages, 232-33. Flagstaff, Arizona: [Anonymous] 1996. Public Law 101-477 - October. 30, 1990[,] Title I -- Native American Language Act. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous Aoki, Haruo. 1972. Horobi yuku kotoba o otte ('In pursuit of disappearing languages'). Tokyo: Sanseido. Arnold, Bob and William Demmert. (Native American Language Policy Group facilitators). 1996. Native American Language Policy Group summary. Atknine, Victor. 1997. The Evenki language from the Yenisei to Sakhalin. In Hiroshi Shoji and Juha Janhunen (ed.) Northern minority languages[:] Austin, Peter. 1986. Structural change in language obsolescence: some eastern Australian examples. Australian Journal of Linguistics, Vol.6, Australian Advisory Council on Languages and Multicultural Education. 1990. The National Policy on Languages December 1987 - March 1990. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. n.d. Linguistic materials for fieldworkers in Australia. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. 2000. Guidelines for ethical research in Indigenous studies. Available at: Australian Linguistic Society. 1990. Statement of ethics. Australian Linguistic Society Newsletter 1990, No.4:14. Baarda, Wendy. 1994. The impact of the bilingual program at Yuendumu, 1974 to 1993. In Deborah Hartman and John Henderson (eds.), Aboriginal Bamgbose, Ayo. 1993. Deprived, endangered, and dying languages. Diogenes (161) 41,1:19-25. Bar-Adon, Aaron. 1978. On the role of children in the revival of Hebrew. In William C. McCormack and Stephen A. Wurm (eds.), Approaches to Barnes, Janet. 1984. Evidentials in the Tuyuca verb. International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol.50, No.3:255-71. Batchelder, Ann and Sherry Markel. 1997. An initial exploration of the Navajo Nation's language and culture initiative. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching Batibo, Herman. 1992. The fate of ethnic languages in Tanzania. In Matthias Brenzinger (ed.), Language death[:] Factual and theoretical explorations Bauman, James A. 1980. A guide to issues in Indian language retention. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Bavin, Edith L. 1989. Some lexical and morphological changes in Warlpiri. In Nancy C. Dorian (ed.), Investigating obsolescence[:] studies in language Beeler, Madison S. 1977. The sources for Esselen: a critical review. In Kenneth Whistler et al. (eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Meeting of the Bell, Jeanie. (ed.) 1982. Language planning for Australian Aboriginal languages. Alice Springs, Australia: Institute for Aboriginal Development. Bell, Neil. 1982. Central Australian language and literature. In Jeanie Bell (ed.), Language planning for Australian Aboriginal languages, 77-82. Alice Bennett, Ruth (ed.). 1997. It really works: cultural communication proficiency. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages, 158-205. Flagstaff, Bennett, Ruth; Pam Mattz; Silish Jackson; and Harold Campbell. 1999. The place of writing in preserving an oral language. In Jon Reyhner et al. (eds.), Bergsland, Knut. 1998. Two cases of language endangerment: Aleut and Sami. In Kazuto Matsumura (ed.), Studies in endangered languages (ICHEL Berndt, Ronald M. and Catherine H. Berndt. 1964. The world of first Australians. Sydney: Ure Smith. Bickerton, Derek. 1981. Roots of language. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers. (Japanese translation published in 1985, by Taishukan Publishing Bickerton, D. 1994. Origins and evolution of language. In R.E. Asher (Editor-in-Chief), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol.5:2881-83. Bielenberg, Brian. 1999. Indigenous language codification: cultural effects. In Jon Reyhner et al. (eds.), Revitalizing indigenous languages, 103-112. Bin-Sallik, Mary Ann; and Nan Smibert. 1998. Anangu teacher education: an integrated adult education programme. In Linda King (ed.) Reflecting Black, Paul. 1993. New uses for old languages. In Michael Walsh and Colin Yallop (eds.), Language and culture in Aboriginal Australia, 207-223. Blake, B.J. 1979. A Kalkatungu grammar. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, the Australian National University. Blake, Barry. 1987. Australian Aboriginal grammar. London: Croom Helm. Blake, Barry J. 1994. Case. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Blake, B. J. 1994. Australian languages. In R.E. Asher (Editor-in-Chief), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol.1:266-73. Oxford: Blake, Barry J. and R.M.W. Dixon. 1991. Introduction. In R.M.W. Dixon and Barry J. Blake (eds.), The Handbook of Australian Languages, Vol.4, Blake, B.J. and R.M.W. Dixon. n.d. [Guideline for] Handbook of Australian Languages. (Unpublished) Blanc, M. 1994. Bilingualism, societal. In R.E. Asher (Editor-in-Chief), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol.1:354-58. Oxford: Bloomfield, Leonard. 1927. Literate and illiterate speech. American Speech, Vol.11, No.10:432-39. Boas, Franz. 1917. Introductory. International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol.1, No.1:1-8. Bohnemeyer, Juergn; Christian Lehmann; and Elisabeth Verhoeven. 1994. Situation of the language. (Allgemeine-Vergleichende Grammatik, Bouquiax, Luc, and Jacqueline M. C. Thomas. 1992. Studying and describing unwritten languages. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Bourke, Colin J. 1980. Aboriginal bilingual education: a case study of schools in the Northern Territory and several states. Clayton, Victoria, Australia: Bowden, Michael. 1994. The Arrernte language program at the Ntyarlke Unit of the Catholic High School[:] Alice Springs. In Deborah Hartman and Bradley, David. 1989. The disappearance of the Ugong in Thailand. In Nancy C. Dorian (ed.), Investigating obsolescence[:] studies in language Bradley, David. 1998. Minority language policy and endangered languages in China and Southeast Asia. In Kazuto Matsumura (ed.), Studies in Bradley, David. 2001. Language attitudes: the key factor in language maintenance. In Osamu Sakiyama (ed.), Lectures on endangered languages: 2 - Bradshaw, Joel. 1995. How and why do people change their languages ? Oceanic Linguistics, Vol.34, No.1:191-201. Brenzinger, Matthias. 1992a. Lexical retention in language shift: Yaaku/Mukogodo-Maasai and Elmolo/Elmolo-Samburu. In Matthias Brenzinger (ed.), Brenzinger, Matthias. (ed.) 1992b. Language death[:] factual and theoretical explorations with special reference to East Africa. Berlin and New York: Brenzinger, Matthias. 1997. Language contact and language displacement. In Florian Coulmas (ed.), The Handbook of Sociolinguistics, 273-84. Brenzinger, Matthias. 1998a. Various ways of dying and different kinds of deaths: scholarly approaches to language endangerment in Africa. In Kazuto Brenzinger, Matthias (ed.). 1998b. Endangered languages in Africa. Koeln: Ruediger Koeppe. Brenzinger, Matthias. 1999. Selection and ranking of endangered languages for documentation. (Paper presented at the expert panel 'Documentation of Brenzinger, Matthias. 2001. Language endangerment through marginalization and globalization. In Osamu Sakiyama (eds.), Lectures on endangered Brenzinger, Matthias; and Gerrit J. Dimmendaal. 1992. Social contexts of language death. In Matthias Brenzinger (ed.), Language death[:] Factual and Brenzinger, Matthias; Bernd Heine; and Gabriele Sommer. 1991. Language death in Africa. In Robert H. Robins and Eugenius M. Uhlenbeck (eds.) Brown, Roger and Albert Gilman. 1960. The pronouns of power and solidarity. Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.), Style in language, 253-76. Cambridge, MA: Bucknall, Gwen and John. 1994. 'We want to keep that language ...': What is happening with Aboriginal languages in the Aboriginal Independent Bunte, Pamela A. and Martha B. Kendall. 1981. When is an error not an error ? Notes on language contact and the question of interference. Burger, Julian. 1998. Indigenous peoples: progress in the international recognition of human rights and the role of education. In Linda King (ed.) Burnaby, Barbara. 1996. Aboriginal language maintenance, development, and enhancement: a review of literature. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing Burnaby, Barbara. 1997. Personal thoughts on indigenous language stabilization. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages, 292-300. Bynon, Theodora. 1977. Historical linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University. Campbell, George L. 2000. Maori. In his Compendium of the world's languages (Second edition), 1077-80. London: Routledge. Campbell, Lyle. 1994. Language death. In R.E. Asher et al. (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vo.4:1960-68. Oxford: Pergamon Campbell, Lyle and Martha C. Muntzel. 1989. The structural consequences of language death. In Nancy C. Dorian (ed.), Investigating obsolescence[:] Cantoni, Gina. 1996a. Introduction. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous languages, vi-xi. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Cantoni, Gina. (ed.) 1996b. Stabilizing indigenous languages. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Cantoni, Gina P. 1997. Keeping minority languages alive: the school's responsibility. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages, 1-9. Cantoni, Gina P. 1999. Using TPR-storytelling to develop fluency and literacy in Native American languages. In Jon Reyhner et al. (eds.), Revitalizing Capell, A. n.d. Methods and materials for recording Australian languages. Sydney: Department of Anthropology, University of Sydney. Capell, A. and H.E. Hinch. 1970. Maung grammar, texts and vocabulary. The Hague and Paris: Mouton. Carpenter, Veronica. 1997. Teaching children to "unlearn" the sounds of English. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages, 31-39. Cataldi, Lee. 1990. Language maintenance and bilingual education at Lajamanu School. In C. Walton and W. Eggington (eds.), Language: maintenance, Catter, Teresa Valiente. 1998. Youth and adult education and literacy for indigenous peoples in Latin America[:] Guatemala, Honduras, Ecuador, Peru Chambers, J.K. 1979a. Introduction. In J.K. Chambers (ed.), The languages of Canada, 1-11. Montreal: Didier. Chambers, J.K. (ed.) 1979b. The languages of Canada. Montreal: Didier. Chelliah, Shobhana L. 2001. The role of text collection and elicitation in linguistic fieldwork. In Paul Newman and Martha Ratliff (eds.), Linguistic Chistensen, Rosemary Ackley. 1996. Written statement. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous languages, 101-02. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Christie, Michael. 1994. Yirrkala Community Education Centre and the Laynha homelands schools[:] north-east Arnhem Land, NT. In Deborah Clark, Ferlin. 1996. Schools - Developmental Session summary. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous languages, 127-30. Flagstaff, Arizona: Clarke, Damon. 1996. What my Hualapai language means to me. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous languages, 92-95. Flagstaff, Arizona: Clyne, Michael. 1991. Australia's language policies[:] Are we going backwards ? Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, No.8:3-22. Clyne, Michael. 1992. Linguistic and sociolinguitic aspects of language contact, maintenance and loss[:] towards a multifacet theory. In Willem Fase, Clyne, Michael. 1994. Australia: minority languages in education. In R.E. Asher (Editor-in-Chief), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Comrie, Bernard. 1978. Ergativity. In Winfred P. Lehmann (ed.), Syntactic typology, 329-94. Austin: University of Texas Press. Comrie, Bernard. 1981. The languages of the Soviet Union. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Comrie, Bernard and Norval Smith. 1977. Lingua Descriptive Studies: Questionnaire. Lingua Vol.42, No.1:1-72. Cook, Eung-Do. 1979. Central Indian languages. In J.K. Chambers (ed.), The languages of Canada, 54-71. Montreal: Didier. Cook, Leanne; and Kevin Buzzacott. 1994. Yipirinya School[:] Alice Springs, NT. In Deborah Hartman and John Henderson (eds.), Aboriginal Coteanu, Ion. 1957. Cum dispare o limba - Histroromina ('How does a language die - Histro-Romanian'). Bucharest: Societatea de Stiinte Filologice din Craig, Colette. 1992. A constitutional response to language endangerment: The case of Nicaragua. Language. Vol.68, No.1:17-24. Craig, Colette G. 1993. Fieldwork on endangered languages: a forward look at ethical issues. In Andre Crochetiere, Jean-Claude Boulanger, and Conrad Craig, Colette Grinevald. 1997. Language conflict and language degeneration. In Florian Coulmas (ed.), The Handbook of Sociolinguistics, 257-70. Crawford, James. 1996. Seven hypotheses on language loss: causes and cures. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous languages, 51-68. Flagstaff, Crowley, Terry. 1993. Tasmanian Aboriginal language: old and new identities. In Michael Walsh and Colin Yallop (eds.), Language and culture in Crowley, Terry. 1995. Melanesian languages: Do they have a future ? Oceanic Linguistics, Vol.34, No.2:327-44. Crowley, Terry and R.M.W. Dixon. 1981. Tasmanian. In R.M.W. Dixon and Barry J. Blake (eds.), Handbook of Australian Languages, Vol.2:395-421. Crystal, David. 2000. Language death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dalton, Lorraine; Sandra Edwards; Rosaleen Farquarson; Sarah Oscar; and Patrick McConvell. 1995. Gurindji children's language and language Das, Rahul Peter. MS. Language problems and conflicts in modern India. Notes of the lecture delivered at the University of Tokyo on the 2nd June Dauenhauer, Nora Marks; and Richard Dauenhauer. 1998. Technical, emotional, and ideological issues in reversing language shift: examples from Davies, A. 1994. Native speaker. In In R.E. Asher (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol.5:2719-25. Oxford: Pergamon Press. de Camp, D. 1971. Introduction: the study of pidgin and creole languages. In Dell Hymes (ed.), Pidginization and creolization of languages, 13-39. Denison, Norman. 1977. Language death or language suicide. Linguistics 191:13-22. Denze, Per. 1998. Brittany[:] a language in search of future. Brussels: European Bureau for Lessor Used Languages. de Reuse, Willem J. 1997. Issues in language textbook development: the case of Western Apache. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages, Devlin, Brian; Stephen Harris; Paul Black, and Irriluma Guruluwini Enemburu (A. I. Brown) (eds.) 1995. Australian Aborigines and Torres Strait Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. 1989. On language death in eastern Africa. In Nancy C. Dorian (ed.), Investigating obsolescence[:] studies in language Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. 1992. Reduction in Kore reconsidered. In Matthias Brenzinger (ed.), Language death[:] factual and theoretical explorations with Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. 2001. Places and people: field sites and informants. In Paul Newman and Martha Ratliff (eds.), Linguistic fieldwork, 55-75. Ditmar, Selena. 1999. Nakoda language program at Fort Belknap College. In Jon Reyhner et al. (eds.), Revitalizing indigenous languages, 65-67. Dixon, R.M.W. 1972. The Dyirbal language of North Queensland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dixon, R.M.W. 1977. A grammar of Yidiny. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dixon, R.M.W. 1979. Ergativity. Language Vol.55, No.1:59-138. Dixon, R.M.W. 1980 The languages of Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dixon, R.M.W. 1983. Nyawaygi. In R.M.W. Dixon and Barry J. Blake (eds.), Handbook of Australian Languages, Vol.3:[430]-525. Canberra: Dixon, R.M.W. 1989. Searching for Aboriginal languages[:] memoirs of a field worker. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Dixon, R.M.W. 1991a. The endangered languages of Australia, Indonesia and Oceania. In Robert H. Robins and Eugenius M. Uhlenbeck (eds.), Dixon, R.M.W. 1991b. A changing language situation: the decline of Dyirbal, 1963-1989. Language in Society, Vol.20, No.2:183-200. Dixon, R.M.W. 1992. Naive linguistic explanation. Language in Society, Vol.21, No.1:83-91. Dixon, R.M.W. 1994. Ergativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dixon, R.M.W. 1997. The rise and fall of languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dixon, R.M.W. and Grace Koch. 1996. Dyirbal song poetry. St. Lucia, Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. Dobson, Veronica. 1994. Foreword. In Deborah Hartman and John Henderson (eds.), Aboriginal languages in Education, iii. Alice Springs, Australia: Donaldson, Tamsin. 1994. Alphabet books[:] Western New South Wales. In Deborah Hartman and John Henderson (eds.), Aboriginal languages in Dorian, Nancy C. 1973. Grammatical change in a dying dialect. Language Vol.49, No.2:413-38. Dorian, Nancy C. 1977. The problem of the semi-speakers in language death. Linguistics 191:23-32. Dorian, Nancy C. 1978. The fate of morphological complexity in language death: evidence from East Sutherland Gaelic. Language Vol.54, Dorian, Nancy C. 1980. Linguistic lag as an ethnic marker. Language in Society, Vol.9, No.1:33-41. Dorian, Nancy C. 1981. Language death [:] The life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Dorian, Nancy C. 1982a. Defining the speech community to include its working margins. In Suzanne Romaine (ed.), Sociolinguistic variation in speech Dorian, Nancy C. 1982b. Language loss and language maintenance in contact situations. In R.D. Lambert and B.F. Freed (eds.), The loss of language Dorian, Nancy C. 1986. Gathering language data in terminal speech communities. In Joshua A. Fishman et al. (eds.), The Fergusonian impact[:] In Dorian, Nancy C. 1987. The value of language-maintenance efforts which are unlikely to succeed. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, Dorian, Nancy C. 1989a. Introduction. In Nancy C. Dorian (ed.), Investigating obsolescence[:] Studies in language contraction and death, 1-10. Dorian, Nancy C. (ed.) 1989b. Investigating obsolescence[:] Studies in language contraction and death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dorain, Nancy C. 1992. Small languages and small language communities: news, notes and comments 10. International Journal of the Sociology of Dorian, Nancy C. 1993a. Working with endangered languages: privileges and perils. In Andre Crochetiere, Jean-Claude Boulanger, and Conrad Ouellon Dorian, Nancy C. 1993b. A response to Ladefoged's other view of endangered languages. Language Vol.69, No.3:575-79. Dorian, Nancy C. 1994a. Varieties of variation in a very small place: social homogeneity, prestige norms, and linguistic variation. Language, Vol.70, Dorian, Nancy C. 1994b. Review of Robert H. Robins and Eugenius M. Uhlenbeck (eds.), Endangered languages, Oxford: Berg Language, Dorain, Nancy C. 1994d. Comment[:] choices and values in language shift and its study. International Jouranl of the Sociology of Language, Dorian, Nancy C. 1998. Western language ideologies and small-language prospects. In Grenoble, Lenore and Lindsay J. Whaley (eds.), Endangered Dorian, Nancy C. 1999a. The study of language obsolescence: stages, surprises, challenges. Languages and Linguistics, No.3:99-122. Dorian, Nancy C. 1999b. Linguistic and ethnographic fieldwork. In Joshua A. Fishman (ed.), Handbook of language and ethnic identity, 25-41. New Dorian, Nancy C. 2001a. Surprises in Sutherland. In Paul Newman and Martha Ratliff (eds.), Linguistic fieldwork, 133-151. Cambridge: Cambridge Dorian, Nancy C. 2001b. Language obsolescence. In Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes (Editors-in-Chief), International Encyclopedia of the Social and Dressler, Wolfgang. 1972. On the phonology of language death. In Paul M. Peranteau et al. (eds.), Papers from the Eighth Regional Meeting Chicago Dressler, Wolfgang U. 1981. Language shift and language death -- a Protean challenge for the linguist. Folia Linguistica, Vol.15, Nos.1-2:5-28. Dressler, Wolfgang U. 1982. Acceleration, retardation, and reversal in language decay ? In Robert L. Cooper (ed.), Language spread[:] Studies in Dressler, Wolfgang and Ruth Wodak-Leodolter 1977a. Introduction. Linguistics 191:5-11. (The contens of this issue are identical to the contents of Dressler, Wolfgang and Ruth Wodak-Leodolter. 1977b. Language preservation and language death in Brittany. Linguistics No.191:33-44. (The Duque, Vilma. 1998. The ducational reality of the indigenous peoples of the Mesoamerican region. In Linda King (ed.) Reflecting visions[:] new Eades, Diana. 1982. You got to know how to talk...: information seeking in South-east Queensland Aboriginal society. 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